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Corporate

[Video] Share transfer restrictions – Learn the practical stuff, understand the legal debates

A corporate lawyer’s job includes facilitating mergers and investments by and into businesses. Really experienced corporate lawyers become extremely familiar with shareholders’ agreements and joint-venture agreements but young corporate lawyers and law students working at corporate law firm internships are known to look at terms like ROFR, ROFO, tag-along, and drag-along with wonder.

These different types of share transfer restrictions are a massive and complicated topic. To make it easier to understand, we spoke to Arjun Rajgopal (Principal Associate, Khaitan & Co.) and Umakanth V., an Associate Professor at National University Singapore, and among the most respected names in Indian corporate law.

What we have below are two videos which contain a completely lucid, simplified, and practical explanation of shareholder restrictions. In the first part, we discuss their purpose, their different types, and how they work.

In the second part, we look at how Indian laws have treated share transfer restrictions and the massive debate over their enforceability. What did the Companies Act, 1956 say about them and how have things changed with the new Companies Act, 2013?

If you want to be a corporate lawyer, you cannot afford to miss these two videos.

 

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Corporate

Learn to draft a share purchase (or subscription) agreement for a private equity transaction

PrivateEquityLawyer_AngiraSinghviOnce due diligence has been conducted on the target of a private equity investment and the investor, satisfied with the outcome of due diligence, is ready to invest, the stage is set for drafting the documents needed to complete the transaction. Drafts of these documents are usually prepared while the due diligence proceeds simultaneously.

The key documents

The documents that are fundamental to a private equity investment are (1) the share purchase agreement (“SPA”) or the share subscription agreement (“SSA”) depending on how the investor acquires shares in the target; (2) the shareholders’ agreement (“SHA”); and (3) the disclosure schedule. Since a private equity investor invests in the company for a fixed amount of time rather than in the assets owned by the company, asset transfers are quite rare.

An SPA provides for the transfer of shares to the investor. It is executed when the shareholders of the target company agree to transfer their shares to the investor. Under such an agreement, the investor purchases shares that are already in existence. An SSA on the other hand, provides for a new issue of shares. Such an agreement is preferred when parties decide that instead of the current shareholders transferring their shares to the new investor, the company would issue new shares to the investor. The investor subscribes to these new shares and hence the name, “share subscription agreement”.

An SHA provides for the rights and obligations of the parties inter se, that is, in relation to each other. It includes provisions for the manner in which the target company will be governed and run after the closing. Common items covered in an SHA are the appointment of directors, the conduct of board and shareholders’ meetings, shareholding, the raising of finance, and the transfer of shares.

A disclosure schedule sets out the documents and information that the target has provided or given access to the investor during the due diligence process or at any time before the execution of documents.

Let us now discuss these documents in greater detail. I will cover SPAs and SSAs in this article and SHAs and disclosure schedules in the next one.

As we have seen, an SPA or an SSA (as the case may be) provides the framework for the investor to become a shareholder in the target company. Let us now see some of the major issues that this document will cover.

Transfer or issue of shares

The agreement will state whether the shares are being issued or transferred to the investor. It will also set out the price at which the shares are being issued or transferred, the mode of transfer or issue, and the manner in which the consideration is transferred. While the transfer is stipulated in the agreement, it actually takes place during the board meeting that is conducted at the time of closing the deal. I will discuss the details of how this should be conducted in a later article on closing.

While drafting this clause, it is also useful to keep in mind certain specific aspects that may affect a transfer.

Documents in escrow: The parties may, for example, only want the transfer to take effect from a later date. Until that date, they may want the executed documents to be deposited in an escrow account. While drafting such conditions, you should be able to identify any procedural and secretarial issues such as those in relation to the validity of resolutions for a particular period or the validity of share transfer certificates. An escrow arrangement for instance, will not work unless those documents are valid for the entire period of escrow.

Sale to a foreign party: Similarly, a sale to a foreign party must adhere to the pricing norms contained in the FDI Policy.

Encumbrances: In the case of a transfer of securities, lawyers advising on the transaction should ensure that the transfer is free from all encumbrances. For example, the shares may be pledged to third parties against loans and advances or there may be a charge on the assets of the company. Due diligence should be thorough so that any such possibilities can be crossed out. Further, documentation should mention that all transfers are without any encumbrance. Charges can be searched on the Ministry of Corporate Affairs’ website and a lawyer can draft the ‘transfer’ clause accordingly.

– Authorised share capital: In case of a new issue of shares, a lawyer should also ensure that the company will continue to comply with the ceiling of authorised share capital after such issue. Under law, a company cannot raise more capital than the authorised share capital provided in its memorandum of association. In case the capital after the raise is likely to exceed this amount, the memorandum should be amended to reflect that.

– Nature of security: In case the issue involves a party resident outside India and the automatic route is intended for the investment, a lawyer advising on the transaction should also ensure that the nature of security is such that it is a plain vanilla equity or that is compulsorily convertible into equity and advise the client accordingly.

Conditions precedent to closing the transaction

On completing the due diligence, lawyers advising the investor will be able to identify some key items that the target entity should fulfil before closing the transaction. For instance, the target company may not have complied with some laws.

Some common conditions precedent include:

(1) that target entity should obtain some prescribed licenses;

(2) that it should issue appointment letters to its employees in a prescribed format;

(3) that it should complete the statutory books and pending filings;

(4) that it should obtain necessary corporate approvals and resolutions for entry into the transaction; and

(5) that it should obtain a valuation of shares.

The SPA or the SSA will contain these conditions. A condition precedent has to be fulfilled by the seller after the agreement is executed but prior to closing the transaction. The buyer usually has the option to provide an extension of this period or even to cancel any such compliance as a condition precedent if it is not fundamental to the investment. Common examples of such conditions are the obtaining or renewal of ancillary licenses, such as, the license to operate a lift. However, fundamental conditions such as the license to operate the business or any corporate approvals necessary to undertake the transaction, cannot be dispensed with.

The SSA or SPA will also provide a date by when each of the conditions precedent should be complied with. This is usually called the “long stop” date. The agreement will stipulate that unless the conditions are complied with by that date, the agreement, despite execution, will terminate and there will not be any closing of the agreement.

Closing

The “closing” is the point at which the transaction is completed. Shares are transferred, money is paid, the board undergoes changes, and the necessary corporate actions are undertaken to formally make the investor a part of the target entity. Closing is usually undertaken 30 to 60 days after the execution of transaction documents. During this time, the target entity fulfils the stipulated conditions precedent or seeks from the investor, a waiver from fulfilling them.

On the closing date, a board meeting is organised. The main actions undertaken at such meetings include the issue or transfer of shares (as the case may be); the appointment of directors nominated by the investor; and the approval of the amended form of the target’s articles of association and then placing them before the shareholders for final approval. We will discuss the need for such appointments and amendments in a later post on SHAs. The process of closing will also be discussed in detail in subsequent posts.

Following the board meeting, a shareholders’ meeting is also organised. Some matters that are passed by the board, such as an amendment to the company’s articles of association, require shareholders’ meeting for final approval.

Once the closing has been successfully completed, an investor formally becomes a part of the target company. All these aspects are stipulated in the SPA or the SSA usually after the clause on conditions precedent. This clause provides the time and date of closing and also lists out the actions that will be undertaken on the closing date. Since there are numerous actions to be completed, usually, it is provided that upon one last action being completed, all closing items will be deemed to have been completed. This clause also provides the manner in which consideration will flow from the buyer to the seller unless a separate clause on consideration is provided for. There are several ways in which a transfer of shares may take place. For example, it may be in dematerialised form or through the endorsement of share certificates. Consideration may be paid through cash, cheque, or wire transfer. All these aspects are provided for in the clause providing for transfer or issue of shares. Where the investor is a foreign entity, Form FC-GPR in the case of an issue of shares or Form FC-TRS in case of a transfer of shares, need to be filed with the Reserve Bank of India. After all these actions are completed, share certificates are finally issued to the buyer and then the closing is deemed to have been undertaken.

This clause has a large bearing on the completeness of a transaction from a procedural point of view. All items should be carefully listed and completed in accordance with company law and the applicable secretarial standards.

Representations and warranties backed by indemnity

You will remember from studying the law of contracts and sale of goods that representations and warranties are usually made by a seller to a buyer regarding the product that is up for sale. To understand this clause in the SSA or the SPA, you can consider the target company as a ‘product’ that is being sold by its current shareholders. Extensive representations and warranties are made to ensure there will not be any liabilities or adverse consequences for the investor.

They include representations and warranties about the authority and capacity of the parties in entering into the transaction; corporate matters, filings, resolutions and approvals; licenses and approvals for the transaction and business; business of the company; taxation, accounts and records; borrowings; intellectual property; related party transactions; assets; and litigation.

As lawyer advising the investor, you should ensure that your list of representations and warranties should be extensive and cover every aspect in relation to the target company. A lawyer advising the target company will attempt to narrow down the list. For example, if the target company has already provided the investor with some information during the due diligence, you may refrain from providing any representation or warranty on that very aspect as the investor is expected to know the correct state of affairs. Also, if the investor has clearly come to know of any shortfall in the company’s affairs, you may not want to provide a representation or warranty to that item.

These representations and warranties are backed by indemnity. While agreeing to indemnify the investor, the company and its current shareholders promise to save the investor from any loss caused to the investor for any breach, falsity, or shortfall of the representations and warranties. It is important to draft the clause on indemnity carefully to ensure that liability is predictable. A company will want to cap its liability as much as possible while an investor will want to do the opposite.

This brings our discussion on drafting SPAs and SSAs to a close. I will discuss SHAs and disclosure letters in my next post.

Angira Singhvi is a principal associate with Khaitan Sud and Partners and handles general corporate, joint ventures and private equity investments.

Categories
Corporate

Lock ins, ROFRs, tag alongs, drag alongs – understand the four types of transfer restrictions

Drafting_for_Business_Deepa_Mookerjee.jpgShareholders agreements, we all know, list the rights and obligations of the shareholders in a company and contain clauses that are vital for any M&A transaction. We have already discussed one such clause, the conditions precedent clause. Let us now study another set of clauses – commonly grouped under the term, ‘transfer restrictions’.

Consider the case of a foreign investor who intends to purchase 26 per cent of the shares of a company and has all the know-how and expertise to run the business. This investor’s participation is critical to the business and its Indian partner in the business would prefer that it does not exit the company. Even the foreign investor, mindful of its faith in the Indian partner, would not want the Indian partner to exit the company. The shareholders agreement therefore, would contain clauses that restrict the foreign investor and the Indian partner from transferring their shares to a third party.  A ‘transfer restriction’, simply put, restricts shareholders from transferring their shares in the company.

All doubts about the legality of transfer restrictions under the Companies Act, 1956 has been cleared by the proviso to Section 58(2) in the Companies Act, 2013. It clearly states that “any contract or arrangement between two or more persons in respect of transfer of securities shall be enforceable as a contract”.

While there is no formal clarification from the Ministry of Corporate Affairs regarding this insertion, it appears that that this provision is an attempt to codify the principles laid down in the judgment of the Bombay High Court in the case of Messer Holdings Limited v. Shyam Madanmohan Ruia and Others, [2010] 104 SCL 293 (Bom). The Court held that it is open to shareholders to enter into consensual agreements in relation to the specific shares held by them, provided such agreements are not in conflict with the articles of association of the company, the Companies Act, 1956, and its rules. Such agreements can be enforced like any other agreement and does not impede the free transferability of shares.

The Companies Act, 2013 has also recognised the position that a share is the property of the shareholder. The shareholder is free to transfer his or her property, provided that it is not in conflict with the articles of the company and other provisions of company law.

Let us now focus on a few common transfer restrictions.

Lock-in period

By a specifying a period during which a party is prohibited from transferring or selling its shares in the company, a shareholder is ‘locked in’ to the company. This restriction can apply to one, some, or all the shareholders of in the company.

There is no specified time period applicable to all transactions. Parties determine the time period for the lock-in depending on commercial considerations such as the nature of the business. Sometimes, the time period may differ among shareholders.

The Indian party in our earlier example may feel that five years is sufficient time to absorb all the foreign investor’s know how and then run the business independently. In such a case, the Indian party would probably be content with a lock-in period of five years applicable to the foreign investor.

Right of first refusal

Sometimes, a shareholder who intends to sell its shares to a third party can only do so after first offering them to the other shareholders and only if they refuse to purchase these shares. The price at which the shares are sold to the third party must be equal to or higher than the price at which they were offered to the other shareholders. This gives the other shareholders in the company a right of first refusal, that is, a right to purchase shares which helps consolidate their own shareholding in the company and also prevent the entry of an undesirable purchaser.

Tag along right

A right is some times granted to a minority shareholder to require the majority shareholder to sell its shares along with those of the majority shareholder, to the same third party. This gives a minority shareholder, the right to exit the company if it does not want to continue in the company with a new majority shareholder.

Drag along right

While a tag along right is granted to a minority shareholder, a drag along right is typically granted to a majority shareholder. A majority shareholder will have the right, while selling its own shares, to require the minority shareholder to sell its shares as well. The majority shareholder can thus drag the minority shareholder along while making a sale.

This right is important from the perspective of a new investor. Consider the case of an investor who is about to purchase 95 per cent of the shares of a company from one party in which another party holds the remaining five per cent shares. Since a new investor would prefer to own all the shares and take full control of the company, the majority shareholder would prefer to exercise a drag along right and force the minority shareholder to sell its five per cent to the same new investor.

The key point to remember while drafting any of these clauses is that your clients (whether a majority or minority shareholder) would like to maximise their investment while exiting the company. Therefore, determining the price at which shares are sold is critical.

Say for instance, your client has a drag along right. While drafting this clause, it may be best to lay down certain principles as to how the share price will be determined to ensure that there is no dispute at a later stage. Generally, the minority shareholder sells his or her shares at the same or higher price than that which is offered by the third party for the shares of the majority shareholder.

Always be very clear while drafting these clauses. You should choose your words and terms carefully and ensure there is no ambiguity while interpreting the nature of the restriction. Remember that these clauses are primarily contractual in nature and will always change depending upon the nature of the transaction. Never cut and paste a clause from another agreement without applying your mind to the facts of your transaction. In short, put in time and effort in understanding the transaction and only then draft a clause to suit the requirements of your client.

(Deepa Mookerjee is part of the faculty on myLaw.net.)